提取练习和迁移学习

原文：Retrieval practice and transfer learning (andymatuschak.org)

最简单的测试效应实例发生在学生对着他们之后会被测试的（即相同的）卡片进行测试的时候。所以：假设你记住了关于一个主题的一千张卡片，我们真正关心的不仅仅是你回答这些具体问题的能力，毕竟你早就见过它们了，而更重要的是这种练习使你对该主题的可用理解产生了怎样的影响。你实际上能用它做什么？如果我问你一个涉及你所练习的知识的开放式问题，你能不能调动这些知识——即迁移学习。

• 助记媒介可以包含卡片来支持近迁移

• 助记媒介如何帮助读者产生更复杂的理解？

实验证据

• Meta-analytic review and synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 144(7), 710–756

  • 这个关于提取练习的迁移效应的元分析发现，相对于非练习干预，总体平均迁移效应为 d=0.4，特别是受练习期间的反应一致性、初始准确性和精细提取调节。

• Butler, A. (2010). Repeated Testing Produces Superior Transfer of Learning Relative to Repeated Studying. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36, 1118–1133.

  • 用改编的维基百科段落进行的小型实验表明，相对于重新学习，提取练习可以提高学习者面对迁移类问题的表现，其幅度与逐字问题相近。

• A Systematic Review of Applied Research in Schools and Classrooms. Educational Psychology Review.

  • 在这个关于提取练习的更广泛的系统性的综述中，作者指出：「与逐字或重复问题的实验相比，改写问题的实验的效应通常较小。」这个效应看起来很小，也许是 d~0.1-0.2。

• Samani, J., & Pan, S. (2021). Interleaved Practice Enhances Memory and Problem-Solving Ability in Undergraduate Physics. Npj Science of Learning, 6.

  • 交错练习，在这个例子中会涉及到提取练习和间隔效应，在随后的迁移测试中产生了明显的提高。

• Karpicke, J. D., & Blunt, J. R. (2011). Retrieval Practice Produces More Learning than Elaborative Studying with Concept Mapping. Science, 331(6018), 772–775.

  • 研究主要是为了评估概念图与提取练习，评估时涉及需要迁移才能回答的推理问题，在这些问题上，提取练习条件下的学生比所有其他条件（重复学习、概念图）表现更好，就绝对数值而言，也相当不错。

• Do Students Need Fact Knowledge Before Higher Order Learning? Journal of Educational Psychology, 111, 189–209

  • 在某些条件下，学生进行事实问题的练习，并被要求回答高阶测试问题。这些学生的表现与那些完全不进行提取练习的学生几乎没有区别。

准备阅读

• Agarwal, P. K., Bain, P. M., & Chamberlain, R. W. (2012). The value of applied research: Retrieval practice improves classroom learning and recommendations from a teacher, a principal, and a scientist. *Educa- tional Psychology Review, 24,*437– 448. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ s10648-012-9210-2

• Johnson, C. I., & Mayer, R. E. (2009). A testing effect with multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(3), 621–629. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015183

• McDaniel, M. A., Howard, D. C., & Einstein, G. O. (2009). The Read-Recite-Review Study Strategy: Effective and Portable. Psychological Science, 20(4), 516–522. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02325.x

• McDaniel, M. A., Thomas, R. C., Agarwal, P. K., McDermott, K. B., & Roediger, H. L. (2013). Quizzing in middle-school science: Successful transfer performance on classroom exams. *Applied Cognitive Psychol- ogy, 27,*360–372. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/acp.2914

• Agarwal, P. K. (2019). Retrieval practice and Bloom’s taxonomy: do students need fact knowledge before higher order learning? Journal of Educational Psychology, 111, 2 189–209.

• Butler, A. C., Black-Maier, A. C., Raley, N. D., & Marsh, E. J. (2017). Retrieving and applying knowledge to different examples promotes transfer of learning. *Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 23,*433–446. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/xap0000142

• Carpenter, S. K. (2012). Testing enhances the transfer of learning. *Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21,*279–283. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1177/0963721412452728

• Rohrer, D., Taylor, K., & Sholar, B. (2010). Tests enhance the transfer of learning. *Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36,*233–239. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0017678

• van Eersel, G. G., Verkoeijen, P. P., Povilenaite, M., & Rikers, R. (2016). The testing effect and far transfer: The role of exposure to key infor- mation. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1977. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/ fpsyg.2016.01977

• Balch, W. R. (1998). Practice versus review exams and final exam performance. Teaching of Psychology, 25, 181–185. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1207/s15328023top2503_3

• Bjork, E. L., Little, J. L., & Storm, B. C. (2014). Multiple-choice testing as a desirable difficulty in the classroom. Journal of Applied Research in Memory & Cognition, 3, 165–170. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac .2014.03.002

• McConnell, M. M., St-Onge, C., & Young, M. E. (2015). The benefits of testing for learning on later performance. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 20, 305–320. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10459-014-9529-1

• McDaniel, M. A., Anderson, J. L., Derbish, M. H., & Morrisette, N. (2007). Testing the testing effect in the classroom. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 19, 494 –513. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 09541440701326154

• McDaniel, M. A., Wildman, K. M., & Anderson, J. L. (2012). Using quizzes to enhance summative-assessment performance in a web-based class: An experimental study. Journal of Applied Research in Memory & Cognition, 1, 18–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2011.10.001